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Granados, O. M. (2017). El chocolate antes de la Gran Guerra: una perspectiva desde los sistemas abiertos. Tiempo Y economía, 4(2), 67–88. https://doi.org/10.21789/24222704.1222
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Resumen
Este artículo evalúa la transformación del consumo global de chocolate en el periodo previo a la Gran Guerra (1870-1914). La investigación revela que el consumo de chocolate, más allá de una relación causal del mejoramiento en el ingreso y la búsqueda de un mejor estatus social, emergió de una interacción continua de diversos elementos como la innovación chocolatera, el emprendimiento, el comercio, la banca, la economía política y la política imperial. Por lo tanto, el consumo de chocolate funcionó como un sistema abierto.
Palabras clave:
Citas
Fuentes primarias
Archivos:
Baring Brothers & Co., House Correspondence, The Spanish and Portuguese Correspondence. The Baring Archive.
Chicago Board of Trade Records (CBOT), Organizational Records, Annual Reports. University of Illinois at Chicago Library.
Parliamentary Debates (TPD), First and Fourth Series 1803-1908. British Library
WR Grace & Co. Collection (WRGC), Letterbooks WR Grace Private. Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University Library.
Documentación primaria impresa:
Bulletin of the Imperial Institute (Great Britain: Commonwealth Institute, 1906).
Bulletin of the Imperial Institute (Great Britain: Commonwealth Institute, 1908).
Colonial Reports Annual. Gold Coast. Varios años.
Colonial Reports Annual. Nigeria. Varios años.
Colonial Reports Annual. Southern Nigeria. Varios años.
Estatutos de la Compañía del Caquetá. Fundada en septiembre de 1887. Ibagué: Imprenta del Departamento.
Informe del Presidente del Estado de Santander a la Asamblea Lejislativa en sus sesiones de 1873 (1873). Socorro: Imprenta del Estado.
Entrevistas:
Pathmanathan Umaharan. En discusión con el autor. 6 de noviembre de 2015.
Xavier Elizarde Romero. En discusión con el autor. 9 de noviembre de 2012.
Fuentes secundarias
Barker, W. H. (1925). Trade Communications in Tropical Africa. Economic Geography, 1(3), 315-336.
Blanshard, P. (1947). Democracy and Empire in the Caribbean. New York: The Macmillan Company.
Bordo, M., y Meissner, C. (2007). Financial Crises, 1880-1913: The Role of Foreign Currency Debt. En S. Edwards, G. Esquivel, y G. Márquez (Edits.), The Decline of Latin American Economies. Growth, Institutions and Crises (pp. 139-194). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Brand, R. R. (1972). The Role of Cocoa in the Growth and Spatial Organization of Accra (Ghana) Prior to 1921. African Studies Review, 15(2), 271-282.
Bulmer-Thomas, V. (1994). The Economic History of Latin America since Independence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bushnell, D. (1993). The Making of Modern Colombia: A Nation of Itself. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Cadbury, D. (2010). Chocolate Wars. London: Harper Press.
Callcott, W. (1942). The Caribbean Policy of the United States, 1890-1920. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press.
Chiriloga, M. (1980). Jornaleros y Grandes Propietarios en 135 años de exportación. Quito: Consejo Provincial de Pichincha/Centro de Investigación y Estudios Socioeconómicos de Ecuador.
Clarence-Smith, W. (1990). The Hidden Costs of Labour on the Cocoa Plantations of São Tomé and Príncipe, 1875-1914. Portuguese Studies, 6, 152-172.
Clarence-Smith, W. (1994). African and European Cocoa Producers on Fernando Póo, 1880s to 1910s. The Journal of African History, 35(2), 179-199.
Clarence-Smith, W. (1995). Cocoa Plantations in the Third World, 1870s-1914. En J. Harriss, J. Hunter, & C. Lewis (Edits.), The New institutional Economics and Third World Development (pp. 157-171). London: Routledge.
Clarence-Smith, W. (2000). Cocoa and Chocolate, 1765-1914. London: Routledge.
Clarence-Smith, W. (2016). Chocolate Consumption from the Sixteenth Century to the Great Chocolate Boom. En M. Squicciarini , y J. Swinnen (Edits.), The Economics of Chocolate (pp. 43-70). Oxford: Oxford Univeristy Press.
Clarence-Smith, W., y Ruf, F. (1996). Cocoa Pionner Fronts: The Historical Determinants. En W. Clarence-Smith (Ed.), Cocoa Pioneer Fronts since 1800 (pp. 1-22). London: Macmillan Press.
Close, F. A. (1959). High Finance in Cocoa. The Analysts Journal, 15(2), 75-80.
Coe, S., y Coe, M. (2007). The True History of Chocolate. New York: Thames & Hudson.
Crabtree, W. A. (1914). German Colonies in Africa. Journal of the Royal African Society, 14(53), 1-14.
Dand, R. (2011). The International Cocoa Trade. Oxford: Woodhead Publishing.
D'Antonio, M. (2006). Hershey. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
de Vries, J. (1994). The Industrial Revolution and the Industrious Revolution. The Journal of Economic History, 54(2), 249-270.
del Valle Pavón, G. (2010). Comercialización del cacao de Guayaquil por los mercaderes del Consulado de México en la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII. Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, 26(2), 181–206.
Ferry, R. (1980). Cacao and Kindred: Transformations of Economy and Society in Colonial Caracas. PhD Dissertation: University of Minnesota.
Fitzgerald, R. (2000). Markets, Management, and Merger: John
Mackintosh & Sons, 1890-1969. Business History Review, 74(4), 555-610.
Fraser, W. H. (1981). The Coming of the Mass Market, 1850-1914. London: Macmillan.
Fromm, I. (2016). From Small Chocolatiers to Multinationals to Sustainable Sourcing: A Historical Review. En M. Squicciarini , & J. Swinnen (Edits.), The Economics of Chocolate (pp. 71-87). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Garrone, M., Pieters, H., y Swinnen, J. (2016). From Pralines to Multinationals: the Economic History of Belgian Chocolates. En M. Squicciarini, y J. Swinnen (Edits.), The Economics of Chocolate (pp. 88-118). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Girault, A. (1916). The Colonial Tariff Policy of France. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Glade, W. (1994). América Latina y la economía internacional, 1870-1914. En T. Halperin Donghi, W. Glade, R. Thorp, A. Bauer, M. Moreno, C. Lewis, y V. Bulmer-Thomas, Historia económica de América Latina. Desde la Independencia a nuestros días (J. Beltrán, Trad., pp. 49-97). Barcelona: Editorial Crítica.
Greaves, I. (1954). The Character of British Colonial Trade. Journal of Political Economy, 62(1), 1-11.
Green, R. H., y Hymer, S. H. (1966). Cocoa in the Gold Coast: A Study in the Relations between African Farmers and Agricultural Experts. The Journal of Economic History, 26(3), 299-319.
Greenhill, R. (1996). A Cocoa Pioneer Front, 1890–1914: Planters, Merchants and Government Policy in Bahia. En W. Clarence-Smith (Ed.), Cocoa Pioneer Fronts since 1800. London: Macmillan Press.
Guerrero, A. (1980). Los oligarcas del cacao: ensayo sobre la acumulación originaria en el Ecuador, 1890-1910. Quito: El Conejo.
Guex, S. (1998). The Development of Swiss Trading Companies in the Twentieth Century. En G. Jones (Ed.), The Multinational Traders (pp. 150-172). London: Routledge.
Harwich, N. (1996). The Eastern Venezuela Pioneer Front, 1830s–1930s: The Role of the Corsican Trade Network. En W. Clarence-Smith (Ed.), Cocoa Pioneer Fronts since 1800 (pp. 23-44). London: Macmillan Press.
Henderson, P. (1997). Cocoa, Finance and the State in Ecuador, 1895-1925. Bulletin of Latin American Research, 16(2), 169-186.
Henderson, W. O. (1945). British Economic Activity in the German Colonies, 1884-191. The Economic History Review, 15(1), 56-66.
Hernández, J. (2008). El fruto prohibido. El cacao de Guayaquil y el mercado Novohispano, siglos XVI-XVIII. Estudios de Historia Novohispana (39), 43-79.
Kennedy, P. (1987). The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. New York: Vintage Books.
Knapp, A. (1920). Cocoa and Chocolate: Their History for Plantation to Consumer. London: Chapman and Hall.
Krug, C., y Quartey-Papafio, E. (1965). Análisis de la situación Cacahuera mundial. Roma: Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentación.
Leff, N. H. (1973). Tropical Trade and Development in the Nineteenth Century: The Brazilian Experience. Journal of Political Economy, 81(3), 678-696.
Lewis, W. A. (1978). Growth and Fluctations, 1870-1913. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
Maiguashca, J. (1996). Ecuadorian Cocoa Production and Trade, 1840-1925. En W. Clarence-Smith (Ed.), Cocoa pioneer fronts since 1800 (pp. 65-84). London: Macmillan Press.
Martínez, A. (2000, Octubre). El chocolate, bebida sin fronteras en el siglo XIX. Revista Credencial Historia, 130.
Marzahl, P. (1978). Town in the Empire: Government, Politics and Society in Seventeenth Century Popayan. Austin, TX: Institute of Latin American Studies.
Meadows, D. (2008). Thinking in Systems. (D. Wright, Ed.) White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing.
Mikell, G. (1992). Cocoa and Chaos in Ghana. Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press.
Miller , J., y Page, S. (2007). Complex Adaptative Systems. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Mintz, S. (1985). Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Miño, W. (2008). Breve historia bancaria del Ecuador. Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional.
Moss, S., y Badenoch, A. (2009). Chocolate: a Global History. London: Reaktion books.
Norton, M. (2006). Tasting Empire: Chocolate and the European Internalization of Mesoamerican Aesthetics. The American Historical Review, 111(3), 660-691.
Norton, M. (2008). Sacred Gifts, Profane Pleasures. A History of Tobacco and Chocolate in the Atlantic World. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Pedler, F. (1974). The Lion and the Unicorn in Africa: The United Africa Company, 1787-1931. London: Heinemann.
Phillips-Lewis, K. (1996). The Trinidad Cocoa Industry and the Struggle for Crown Land during the Nineteenth Century. En W. Clarence-Smith (Ed.), Cocoa Pioneer Fronts since 1800 (pp. 45-64). London: Macmillan Press.
Pinero, E. (1987). Food of the Gods: Cacao and the Economy of the Province of Caracas, 1700-1770. PhD Dissertation: University of Connecticut.
Plummer, B. (1981). Race, Nationality, and Trade in the Caribbean: The Syrians in Haiti, 1903-1934. The International History Review, 3(4), 517-539.
Reyes, R. (1902). A través de la América del Sur: exploraciones de los Hermanos Reyes. Barcelona: Ramón de S. N. Araluce Editor.
Ross, C. (2014). The Plantation Paradigm: Colonial Agronomy, African Farmers, and the Global Cocoa Boom, 1870s–1940s. Journal of Global History, 9(1), 49-71.
Sametband, M. (1994). Entre el orden y el caos. La complejidad. Buenos Aires:: Fondo de Cultura Económica.
Satre, L. J. (2005). Chocolate on Trial: Slavery, Politics, and the Ethics of Business. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press.
Southall, R. J. (1978). Farmers, Traders and Brokers in the Gold Coast Cocoa Economy. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 12(2), 185-211.
Stern, F. (1977). Gold and Iron. Bismarck, Bleichröder and the Building of the German Empire. New York: Alfred Knopf.
Tamaro, D. (1988). A New World Plantation Region in Colonial Venezuela: Eighteenth Century Cacao Cultivation in the Tuy Valley and Barlovento. PhD Dissertation: Boston University.
Tosta Filho, I. (1957). Cocoa Economy in Brazil. Rio de Janeiro: FAO and Bank of Brazil.
Tudhope, W. (1909). The Development of the Cocoa Industry in the Gold Coast and Ashanti. Journal of the Royal African Society, 9(33), 34-45.
Volkenstein, M. (1986). Entropy and Information. (A. Shenitzer, y R. Burns, Trans.) Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag AG.
Weinman, L. J. (1970). Ecuador and Cacao: Domestic responses to the boom-collapse monoexport cycle. PhD Dissertation: University of California, Los Angeles.
Weiss, J. S. (1970). A Spectral Analysis of World Cocoa Prices. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 52(1), 122-126.
Weymar, F. H. (1968). The Dynamics of the World Cocoa Market. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Wheatley, M. (1992). Leadership and the New Science. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Wolf, E. (1982). Europe and the People without History. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Archivos:
Baring Brothers & Co., House Correspondence, The Spanish and Portuguese Correspondence. The Baring Archive.
Chicago Board of Trade Records (CBOT), Organizational Records, Annual Reports. University of Illinois at Chicago Library.
Parliamentary Debates (TPD), First and Fourth Series 1803-1908. British Library
WR Grace & Co. Collection (WRGC), Letterbooks WR Grace Private. Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Columbia University Library.
Documentación primaria impresa:
Bulletin of the Imperial Institute (Great Britain: Commonwealth Institute, 1906).
Bulletin of the Imperial Institute (Great Britain: Commonwealth Institute, 1908).
Colonial Reports Annual. Gold Coast. Varios años.
Colonial Reports Annual. Nigeria. Varios años.
Colonial Reports Annual. Southern Nigeria. Varios años.
Estatutos de la Compañía del Caquetá. Fundada en septiembre de 1887. Ibagué: Imprenta del Departamento.
Informe del Presidente del Estado de Santander a la Asamblea Lejislativa en sus sesiones de 1873 (1873). Socorro: Imprenta del Estado.
Entrevistas:
Pathmanathan Umaharan. En discusión con el autor. 6 de noviembre de 2015.
Xavier Elizarde Romero. En discusión con el autor. 9 de noviembre de 2012.
Fuentes secundarias
Barker, W. H. (1925). Trade Communications in Tropical Africa. Economic Geography, 1(3), 315-336.
Blanshard, P. (1947). Democracy and Empire in the Caribbean. New York: The Macmillan Company.
Bordo, M., y Meissner, C. (2007). Financial Crises, 1880-1913: The Role of Foreign Currency Debt. En S. Edwards, G. Esquivel, y G. Márquez (Edits.), The Decline of Latin American Economies. Growth, Institutions and Crises (pp. 139-194). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Bourdieu, P. (1984). Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Brand, R. R. (1972). The Role of Cocoa in the Growth and Spatial Organization of Accra (Ghana) Prior to 1921. African Studies Review, 15(2), 271-282.
Bulmer-Thomas, V. (1994). The Economic History of Latin America since Independence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bushnell, D. (1993). The Making of Modern Colombia: A Nation of Itself. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Cadbury, D. (2010). Chocolate Wars. London: Harper Press.
Callcott, W. (1942). The Caribbean Policy of the United States, 1890-1920. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press.
Chiriloga, M. (1980). Jornaleros y Grandes Propietarios en 135 años de exportación. Quito: Consejo Provincial de Pichincha/Centro de Investigación y Estudios Socioeconómicos de Ecuador.
Clarence-Smith, W. (1990). The Hidden Costs of Labour on the Cocoa Plantations of São Tomé and Príncipe, 1875-1914. Portuguese Studies, 6, 152-172.
Clarence-Smith, W. (1994). African and European Cocoa Producers on Fernando Póo, 1880s to 1910s. The Journal of African History, 35(2), 179-199.
Clarence-Smith, W. (1995). Cocoa Plantations in the Third World, 1870s-1914. En J. Harriss, J. Hunter, & C. Lewis (Edits.), The New institutional Economics and Third World Development (pp. 157-171). London: Routledge.
Clarence-Smith, W. (2000). Cocoa and Chocolate, 1765-1914. London: Routledge.
Clarence-Smith, W. (2016). Chocolate Consumption from the Sixteenth Century to the Great Chocolate Boom. En M. Squicciarini , y J. Swinnen (Edits.), The Economics of Chocolate (pp. 43-70). Oxford: Oxford Univeristy Press.
Clarence-Smith, W., y Ruf, F. (1996). Cocoa Pionner Fronts: The Historical Determinants. En W. Clarence-Smith (Ed.), Cocoa Pioneer Fronts since 1800 (pp. 1-22). London: Macmillan Press.
Close, F. A. (1959). High Finance in Cocoa. The Analysts Journal, 15(2), 75-80.
Coe, S., y Coe, M. (2007). The True History of Chocolate. New York: Thames & Hudson.
Crabtree, W. A. (1914). German Colonies in Africa. Journal of the Royal African Society, 14(53), 1-14.
Dand, R. (2011). The International Cocoa Trade. Oxford: Woodhead Publishing.
D'Antonio, M. (2006). Hershey. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
de Vries, J. (1994). The Industrial Revolution and the Industrious Revolution. The Journal of Economic History, 54(2), 249-270.
del Valle Pavón, G. (2010). Comercialización del cacao de Guayaquil por los mercaderes del Consulado de México en la segunda mitad del siglo XVIII. Mexican Studies/Estudios Mexicanos, 26(2), 181–206.
Ferry, R. (1980). Cacao and Kindred: Transformations of Economy and Society in Colonial Caracas. PhD Dissertation: University of Minnesota.
Fitzgerald, R. (2000). Markets, Management, and Merger: John
Mackintosh & Sons, 1890-1969. Business History Review, 74(4), 555-610.
Fraser, W. H. (1981). The Coming of the Mass Market, 1850-1914. London: Macmillan.
Fromm, I. (2016). From Small Chocolatiers to Multinationals to Sustainable Sourcing: A Historical Review. En M. Squicciarini , & J. Swinnen (Edits.), The Economics of Chocolate (pp. 71-87). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Garrone, M., Pieters, H., y Swinnen, J. (2016). From Pralines to Multinationals: the Economic History of Belgian Chocolates. En M. Squicciarini, y J. Swinnen (Edits.), The Economics of Chocolate (pp. 88-118). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Girault, A. (1916). The Colonial Tariff Policy of France. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Glade, W. (1994). América Latina y la economía internacional, 1870-1914. En T. Halperin Donghi, W. Glade, R. Thorp, A. Bauer, M. Moreno, C. Lewis, y V. Bulmer-Thomas, Historia económica de América Latina. Desde la Independencia a nuestros días (J. Beltrán, Trad., pp. 49-97). Barcelona: Editorial Crítica.
Greaves, I. (1954). The Character of British Colonial Trade. Journal of Political Economy, 62(1), 1-11.
Green, R. H., y Hymer, S. H. (1966). Cocoa in the Gold Coast: A Study in the Relations between African Farmers and Agricultural Experts. The Journal of Economic History, 26(3), 299-319.
Greenhill, R. (1996). A Cocoa Pioneer Front, 1890–1914: Planters, Merchants and Government Policy in Bahia. En W. Clarence-Smith (Ed.), Cocoa Pioneer Fronts since 1800. London: Macmillan Press.
Guerrero, A. (1980). Los oligarcas del cacao: ensayo sobre la acumulación originaria en el Ecuador, 1890-1910. Quito: El Conejo.
Guex, S. (1998). The Development of Swiss Trading Companies in the Twentieth Century. En G. Jones (Ed.), The Multinational Traders (pp. 150-172). London: Routledge.
Harwich, N. (1996). The Eastern Venezuela Pioneer Front, 1830s–1930s: The Role of the Corsican Trade Network. En W. Clarence-Smith (Ed.), Cocoa Pioneer Fronts since 1800 (pp. 23-44). London: Macmillan Press.
Henderson, P. (1997). Cocoa, Finance and the State in Ecuador, 1895-1925. Bulletin of Latin American Research, 16(2), 169-186.
Henderson, W. O. (1945). British Economic Activity in the German Colonies, 1884-191. The Economic History Review, 15(1), 56-66.
Hernández, J. (2008). El fruto prohibido. El cacao de Guayaquil y el mercado Novohispano, siglos XVI-XVIII. Estudios de Historia Novohispana (39), 43-79.
Kennedy, P. (1987). The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. New York: Vintage Books.
Knapp, A. (1920). Cocoa and Chocolate: Their History for Plantation to Consumer. London: Chapman and Hall.
Krug, C., y Quartey-Papafio, E. (1965). Análisis de la situación Cacahuera mundial. Roma: Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentación.
Leff, N. H. (1973). Tropical Trade and Development in the Nineteenth Century: The Brazilian Experience. Journal of Political Economy, 81(3), 678-696.
Lewis, W. A. (1978). Growth and Fluctations, 1870-1913. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
Maiguashca, J. (1996). Ecuadorian Cocoa Production and Trade, 1840-1925. En W. Clarence-Smith (Ed.), Cocoa pioneer fronts since 1800 (pp. 65-84). London: Macmillan Press.
Martínez, A. (2000, Octubre). El chocolate, bebida sin fronteras en el siglo XIX. Revista Credencial Historia, 130.
Marzahl, P. (1978). Town in the Empire: Government, Politics and Society in Seventeenth Century Popayan. Austin, TX: Institute of Latin American Studies.
Meadows, D. (2008). Thinking in Systems. (D. Wright, Ed.) White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing.
Mikell, G. (1992). Cocoa and Chaos in Ghana. Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press.
Miller , J., y Page, S. (2007). Complex Adaptative Systems. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Mintz, S. (1985). Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Miño, W. (2008). Breve historia bancaria del Ecuador. Quito: Corporación Editora Nacional.
Moss, S., y Badenoch, A. (2009). Chocolate: a Global History. London: Reaktion books.
Norton, M. (2006). Tasting Empire: Chocolate and the European Internalization of Mesoamerican Aesthetics. The American Historical Review, 111(3), 660-691.
Norton, M. (2008). Sacred Gifts, Profane Pleasures. A History of Tobacco and Chocolate in the Atlantic World. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Pedler, F. (1974). The Lion and the Unicorn in Africa: The United Africa Company, 1787-1931. London: Heinemann.
Phillips-Lewis, K. (1996). The Trinidad Cocoa Industry and the Struggle for Crown Land during the Nineteenth Century. En W. Clarence-Smith (Ed.), Cocoa Pioneer Fronts since 1800 (pp. 45-64). London: Macmillan Press.
Pinero, E. (1987). Food of the Gods: Cacao and the Economy of the Province of Caracas, 1700-1770. PhD Dissertation: University of Connecticut.
Plummer, B. (1981). Race, Nationality, and Trade in the Caribbean: The Syrians in Haiti, 1903-1934. The International History Review, 3(4), 517-539.
Reyes, R. (1902). A través de la América del Sur: exploraciones de los Hermanos Reyes. Barcelona: Ramón de S. N. Araluce Editor.
Ross, C. (2014). The Plantation Paradigm: Colonial Agronomy, African Farmers, and the Global Cocoa Boom, 1870s–1940s. Journal of Global History, 9(1), 49-71.
Sametband, M. (1994). Entre el orden y el caos. La complejidad. Buenos Aires:: Fondo de Cultura Económica.
Satre, L. J. (2005). Chocolate on Trial: Slavery, Politics, and the Ethics of Business. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press.
Southall, R. J. (1978). Farmers, Traders and Brokers in the Gold Coast Cocoa Economy. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 12(2), 185-211.
Stern, F. (1977). Gold and Iron. Bismarck, Bleichröder and the Building of the German Empire. New York: Alfred Knopf.
Tamaro, D. (1988). A New World Plantation Region in Colonial Venezuela: Eighteenth Century Cacao Cultivation in the Tuy Valley and Barlovento. PhD Dissertation: Boston University.
Tosta Filho, I. (1957). Cocoa Economy in Brazil. Rio de Janeiro: FAO and Bank of Brazil.
Tudhope, W. (1909). The Development of the Cocoa Industry in the Gold Coast and Ashanti. Journal of the Royal African Society, 9(33), 34-45.
Volkenstein, M. (1986). Entropy and Information. (A. Shenitzer, y R. Burns, Trans.) Basel: Birkhäuser Verlag AG.
Weinman, L. J. (1970). Ecuador and Cacao: Domestic responses to the boom-collapse monoexport cycle. PhD Dissertation: University of California, Los Angeles.
Weiss, J. S. (1970). A Spectral Analysis of World Cocoa Prices. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 52(1), 122-126.
Weymar, F. H. (1968). The Dynamics of the World Cocoa Market. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Wheatley, M. (1992). Leadership and the New Science. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Wolf, E. (1982). Europe and the People without History. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
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