Fecha de recepción: 9 de diciembre de 2025
Fecha de aceptación: 12 de marzo de 2026
Disponible en línea: 6 de mayo de 2026
Vol. 13 N.° 1
Enero - Junio del 2026
pp. 1- 36
HISTORIA ECONÓMICA,EMPRESARIAL Y DEL PENSAMIENTO
TIEMPO & ECONOMÍA
Sugerencia de citación:
Meisel Roca, A.,
Nieto Martelo, B. (2026).
Falling
Through Time: The Height of Military
Conscripts in the Viceroyalty and the
Republic of New Granada, 1720-1840.
tiempo&economia, 13(1), 1-36.
https://doi.org/10.21789/24222704.2212
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21789/
24222704.2212
Falling Through Time: The
Height of Military Conscripts in
the Viceroyalty and the
Republic of New Granada,
1720-1840
Cayendo a través del tiempo: La estatura
de los conscriptos militares en el Virreinato
y la República de Nueva Granada,
1720-1840
Adolfo Meisel Roca
Master and doctor in Economics from the University of Illinois.
Rector of the Universidad del Norte, Colombia.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1255-9867
ameisel@uninorte.edu.co
Brandon Nieto Martelo
Economist and Master in Urban Planning and Territorial Development
from the Universidad del Norte.
Universidad del Norte, Colombia.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2022-4154
martelob@uninorte.edu.co
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2
ABSTRACT
There are no estimates of the height of Colombians during the 18th
and early 19th centuries. This article contributes to closing this gap. We
have constructed a database using military affiliations found in the Archivo
General de la Nación, comprising a total of 373 observations (male recruits).
The results show a sustained decrease in height during the 18th and first
decades of the 19th century. In the case of conscripts born in New Granada,
the average height declined from 167.8 cm in 1720 to 164.6 cm in 1800. We
argue that these results are mainly explained by the deterioration in the
biological standard of living due to numerous epidemics—especially of
smallpox—the presence of extreme climatic conditions such as droughts,
floods, and frosts, and the rapid increase of the population, which was still
recovering from the demographic catastrophe of the 16th century.
Keywords: Biological standard of living; physical stature; Colombia;
18th century; Economic history.
JEL Codes: N36, I15, J11, C24
RESUMEN
Hasta la fecha no hay estimaciones de la estatura de los colombianos
en el siglo XVIII y principios del XIX. Este artículo contribuye a llenar este
vacío. Hemos construido una base de datos utilizando afiliaciones militares
encontradas en el Archivo General de la Nación de Colombia, alcanzando
un número total de 373 observaciones (hombres reclutas). Los resultados
muestran una reducción sostenida de la altura durante el siglo XVIII. En el
caso de los conscriptos nacidos en América la estatura promedio disminuyó
de 167,8 en 1720 a 164,6 cms en 1800. Argumentamos que estos resultados
se explican principalmente por el deterioro del nivel de vida biológico
debido a numerosas epidemias, especialmente de viruela, la presencia de
condiciones climáticas extremas, sequías, inundaciones y heladas, y el
rápido aumento de la población, que aún se recuperaba de la catástrofe
demográfica del siglo XVI.
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Palabras clave: Nivel de vida biológico; estatura física; Colombia;
siglo XVIII; Historia económica.
Códigos JEL: N36, I15, J11, C24.
Introduction
The standard of living has been studied through multiple variables.
Recently, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) have promoted a
holistic view of development (United Nations, 2018). Measures such as
multidimensional poverty, life expectancy at birth, years of schooling,
performance in standardized academic tests, among many others, help us
determine the level of well-being. Unlike modern societies, evaluating the
standard of living in the colonial era is not straight forward, mainly due to
the absence of basic indicators such as the Gross Domestic Product (GDP),
which was not developed until the 1940s (Coyle, 2017). As a result,
researchers have examined the standard of living of European colonies in
America using proxy variables such as real wages (Gelman & Santinilli,
2018). However, there remains a gap in the literature regarding the
performance of countries using indicators such as births, mortality,
production, wealth, and height. Robert Fogel (1997) showed that height is
influenced by food consumption, health conditions, and work effort;
therefore, it can be interpreted as a measure of the biological quality of life.
This document contributes to our understanding of living conditions
in colonial Spanish America through the study of the heights of adult men
in the military born between 1720 and 1820 in New Granada, as well as in
Spain and Portugal. Economic historians have traditionally faced the
challenge of limited data availability for the preindustrial period. As a result,
there are relatively few studies on the standard of living in 18th century
Latin America. Notable exceptions include López-Alonso (2012) for Mexico,
Salvatore and Baten (1998) for Argentina, and Llorca-Jaña et al. (2018) for
Chile.
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An important methodological contribution to the study of biological
welfare in Latin America comes from the work of López-Alonso on Mexico.
Her research combines multiple sources of anthropometric evidence—
including military conscription records, passport applications, skeletal
remains, and modern health surveys—to reconstruct long-term trends in
stature and nutritional status. By triangulating these different types of
evidence, López-Alonso is able to address concerns about sample bias and
extend the analysis of biological welfare across several centuries (López-
Alonso, 2025). This multi-source approach has become increasingly
influential in anthropometric history, particularly in anthropometric
history, particularly in regions where conventional demographic and
economic data are scarce.
Recent research on Chile further illustrates the value of expanding the
range of anthropometric sources used in historical analysis. Llorca-Jaña and
Allende compile new datasets derived from military, prison, school, and
health survey records to reconstruct long-term trends in height and
biological inequality. Their findings highlight the persistence of significant
socioeconomic disparities in stature across regions, occupations, and levels
of education, as well as the importance of public health interventions in
improving biological welfare during the 20th century (Llorca-Jaña &
Allende, 2025). The Chilean evidence thus reinforces the view that changes
in health infrastructure and social policy played a central role in shaping
anthropometric outcomes in Latin America.
As mentioned by López-Alonso (2016) and Llorca-Jaña et al. (2018),
given the heterogeneous conditions of the region, it is important to present
the evolution of height in as many countries as possible, in order to have a
clearer understanding of changes in living conditions in Spanish America
during this period.
Despite these limitations, we have managed to construct a new
database using height data from military affiliation records of recruits
found in the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN). The total number of
observations is 373. The source and structure of the data are briefly
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5
described below. We then present several hypotheses to explain the
observed decline in height during the period 1720-1840. A descriptive and
inferential analysis of height in the sample is subsequently conducted using
a truncated regression methodology. Finally, the main conclusions of the
study are discussed.
The data
The height of Colombians during the 20th century has been analyzed
using government documents rich in anthropometric information. The data
supporting these studies have been obtained from administrative records
related to personal identification, such as national identity card, passports,
and judicial records (Meisel-Roca & Vega-Acevedo, 2004; Meisel-Roca &
Vega-Acevedo, 2005). However, as one attempts to analyze the evolution
of height in earlier periods, issues of incomplete or nonexistent information
begin to arise.
Since the late 19th century Colombian authorities established a
personal identification document in other for citizens to be able to vote
(Bushnell, 1971). The first law that establishing this document in Colombia
dates back to 1853 and was issued by President José María Ovando
(Registraduría Nacional del Estado Civil , 1988). However, it was not until
1934 that the citizenship card was issued for men. For women it was not
issued until 1956 (Meisel-Roca & Vega-Acevedo, 2004). To analyze heights
before 1905, Meisel & Vega (2010) used passport records from 15,911
Colombians—mainly belonging to the elite—who were born between 1870
to 1919. In Colombia, passports date back to 1824, when they were required
by law for Colombians residing abroad in order to travel to other countries.
However, for the period prior to 1870, many passports did not include
height information, and before 1859 there are no passport records available
in the archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs or the AGN.
Documents containing information on the biological well-being of
Colombians prior to 1870 have not been found in significant numbers. In
order to address this gap, we conducted a systematic search in the AGN.
During process, we identified historical documents on the affiliations of
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6
Spanish-American infantry in New Granada, as well as records for
Colombian militias in the years following 1821. These sources include
records for 373 young conscripts whose ages range from 18 to 45 years. Of
these, 192 were born in Spanish-America—most of them in the Viceroyalty
of New Granada—and 175 in Spain (see Table 1). These records allow us to
study the evolution of the height of men born between 1720 and 1810.
Specifically, they contain information on parents’ names, region of origin,
occupation, height (measured in feet and inches), age, and physical
characteristics such as skin color, eye color, hair type, and hair color. All
individuals were assigned to the main port in the viceroyalty, Cartagena de
Indias, where most military personnel were stationed due to its status as a
fortified port.
Table 1. Place of Birth of Military conscripts
Place of Birth
Number of records
New Granada
192
Spain
175
Portugal
2
Italy
1
Mexico
1
France
1
Unknown
1
Total
373
Source: Authors’ calculations with data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo General
de la Nación (2024).
As mentioned by Llorca-Jaña et al. (2018), recruits typically belonged
to middle-income families, which is why they can be considered a good
representation of the overall population. For this reason, and given the
limited number of observations, we consider the analysis of this sample to
be relevant to the literature. According to the census of 1777-1778
(Mapoteca 7, Archivo General de la Nación) the provinces of the Colombian
Caribbean had 169,020 inhabitants, of which 70% lived in the province of
Cartagena (118,403) (see Table 2). Using the same source and combining
census records from all provinces, Solano (2015) estimates that the
population of New Granada in 1788 was around 1,279,440 inhabitants.
Table 1. Place of Birth of Military conscripts
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1 Additionally, recruits were required not to be emplyed as lawyers, notaries, doctors, apothecaries, solicitors, surgeons, revenue administrators, sacristans,
schoolteachers, or grammar schoolteachers. This restriction existed because, if they were incorporated into the infantry, they would cease working in these
occupations, which were considered essential at the time (Torres Ramírez, 1969).
Table 2. Population of the New Granadian Caribbean (circa 1777-1778)
Province
Population
Percentage
Cartagena
118.403
70%
Santa Marta
46.651
28%
Territory of La Guajira
3.966
2%
Total
169.020
100%
Source: Authors’ calculations with data from the Archivo General de la Nación (AGN),
Mapoteca 7, No. 1353(21) and Tovar Pinzón et al. (1994).
The constructed database includes only records of men over 18 years
of age, the age at which individuals, on average, stop growing (Steckel,
1995). Among the variables of interest, the database contains the names of
the recruits and their parents, place of origin, assigned position, previous
occupation, and physical characteristics such as height, sex, hair color and
type, and skin color. As Steckel (1995) explains, the first three years of a
person’s life are the most important in determining final adult height. For
this reason, in order to compare the evolution of height in the 18th century,
we calculated the average height by decade of birth, since economic and
health conditions may have varied over time. Thus, we assume that recruits
born in the same decade were exposed to similar general conditions;
therefore, changes in average height between decades reflect economic,
climatic, health, and other factors influencing the biological quality of life
of the population. We also assume that the requirements for entry into the
infantry did not change substantially during this period. As Torres Ramírez
(1969) explains, regulations for the militia in Spain and Spanish America
were established to determine the urban and rural population suitable for
military service. According to these regulations, men were expected to be
between 15 and 45 years of age. Only in exceptional cases, such as wartime,
could individuals outside of these age range be recruited. Additionally, a
minimum height requirement—usually 5 feet, equivalent to 162.4 cm—was
imposed (Dobado-González & García-Montero, 2014)1.
As described by Farfán and Marín (2014), colonels, marshals, and
sergeants faced several difficulties in increasing the number of soldiers,
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2For more information about the analysis of height, see Komlos (2003); Fogel (1996); and Steckel (2009).
including the cost of recruiting them from Spain, the ability of the new
recruits to handle weapons, and the identification of suitable men. For this
reason, the requirements described previously were sometimes relaxed,
particularly the minimum requirement. This situation is reflected in the
height distribution observed in many studies analyzing military personnel
(Llorca-Jaña et al., 2018; Komlos, 2003; Salvatore & Baten, 1998).
It is also important to clarify that, in conducting this analysis, we
followed the recommendations of Cámara (2006) and Challú (2009) to use
the Paris foot to convert measurements from feet (32.48 cm), inches
(foot/12), and lines (inch/12) into centimeters. The reason is that the Paris
foot was used in Spanish America at the time, as Bourbon monarchs had
imposed French military codes.
Main Results
As Komlos (2003) explains, the analysis of height dates back to the
1830s with the works of Adolphe Quetelet and Luis R. Villermé. However, it
gained importance for historians only in the 1960s, when the French School
of Annales began to analyze the correlation between height and other
socioeconomic variables (Le Roy Ladurie et al., 1969)2. Since the 1970s,
Robert W. Fogel and his associates have studied the determinants of height
in the United States and Great Britain. They applied the main methods of
the New Economic History, including the explicit use of economic theory
and rigorous statistical analysis. This work led to a boom in anthropometric
studies worldwide (Steckel, 2009).
Recent research in anthropometric history has emphasized the
importance of integrating biological indicators into the study of long-term
economic development. As Martínez-Carrión and Cámara demonstrate in
their review of Spanish anthropometric history, height trends reflect the
combined effects of demographic, epidemiological, and nutritional
transitions, and therefore provide a multidimensional indicator of living
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standards beyond conventional economic measures (Martínez-Carrión &
Cámara, 2025). This literature has increasingly adopted interdisciplinary
approaches, combining economic history with demography, epidemiology,
and biological anthropology to reconstruct historical patterns of inequality
in human welfare.
As stated in the previous section, prior to the 19th century, the main
sources of height data were records of prisoners, passport holders, and
military recruitment affiliations. Affiliations, unlike other records, are
subject to minimum height requirement (MHR), which is known in the
literature as the height requirement (HR) problem. This MHR often causes
samples derived from these records to be an incomplete representation of
the population, since individuals below the minimum height are
underrepresented or not represented at all, possibly due to the rounding up
of measurements by recruiters. Such samples typically exhibit a break in the
distribution, or “shortfall” as it is referred to in the literature. In our
database, a clear break in the height distribution can be observed between
162 and 163 cm, with only 11 observations below this threshold. The high
concentration of records within this range suggests that many conscripts
may in fact have been shorter than the minimum required height (see
Figure 1).
Figure 1. Height distribution (cm) for all affiliations in New Granada, 1720-1810
Source: Authors´ calculations based on data collected from Sección Colonia, Archivo
General de la Nación (2024).
Note: The conversion from feet, inches, and lines to centimeters was performed using
Paris foot equivalences.
10000010300011 0 0 10 0 00 0 01 1 0000001
78
27
19
41
23
50
29
14
28
17
8
10
4151211 11 0 0 00 0 0 00 0 001
[130, 131]
(132, 133]
(134, 135]
(136, 137]
(138, 139]
(140, 141]
(142, 143]
(144, 145]
(146, 147]
(148, 149]
(150, 151]
(152, 153]
(154, 155]
(156, 157]
(158, 159]
(160, 161]
(162, 163]
(164, 165]
(166, 167]
(168, 169]
(170, 171]
(172, 173]
(174, 175]
(176, 177]
(178, 179]
(180, 181]
(182, 183]
(184, 185]
(186, 187]
(188, 189]
(190, 191]
(192, 193]
(194, 195]
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Another important characteristic of the distribution is the heaping of
the data in certain heights, such as multiples of 5. The distinct peaks in the
distribution suggest that height was probably not measured with high
precision and that observations were rounded to the nearest unit, either in
inches or centimeters.
In the presence of these two problems, Komlos (2003) argues that the
sample is normally distributed only within a range !"!# ""$, where "!is the
lower limit and "" is the upper limit. The covariances of this dependent
variable with other independent variables can be determined using the
truncated regression method (TR) using a maximum likelihood procedure.
Unlike other methods, such as Truncated Ordinary Least Squares (TOLS)—
which allow estimation only the direction of the trend—TR allows
calculation of the magnitude (average height), standard error, and
correlation of the variable of interest (its association with other explanatory
variables). In accordance with these recommendations, the descriptive
analysis applied to our data set is presented below, along with the results
of a truncated regression using the maximum likelihood procedure.
On average, the height of conscripts in New Granada decreased by 7.2
cm between 1720 and 1810, from 168.2 cm in 1720 to 161 cm in 1810,
indicating a continued deterioration in biological well-being. The highest
average height was recorded in the 1740s (169.2 cm), and the lowest in 1810
(161 cm).
Unlike the results reported by Llorca-Jaña et al. (2018), Mörner (1969),
Dobado-González & García-Montero (2017), and Challú (2010), white
recruits were not the tallest among the different ethnic groups. Individuals
classified as black had the highest average height (169.8 cm), while whites
had the lowest (165.8 cm) (see Table 3). This difference may suggest the
influence of genetic and/or environmental factors. Authors such as Mörner
(1969), Dobado-González & García-Montero (2017), and Challú (2010)
argue that these environmental and genetic factors are associated with the
material well-being of different income strata or social classes.
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Table 3. Height (cm) and number of records according to skin color for military conscripts
born between 1720 and 1820, raw averages
Skin
color
Number of
observations
Percentage of
observations
Average
Height
Minimu
m height
Maximum
height
Standard
Deviation
Dark
(mor|eno)
12
3%
169.8
162.4
194.9
8.6
Black
(Zambo o
Mulato)
12
3%
166.9
162.4
168.3
2.1
Unspecifi
ed
112
30%
166.5
129.9
182.7
5.8
Light
brown
skin
(Trigueño
)
123
33%
166.3
136
181.8
5.7
White
114
31%
165.8
138
179.5
6.1
Total
373
100%
166.3
129.9
194.9
5.9
Source: Authors’ calculations using data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo
General de la Nación.
When analyzing the dispersion of the data, we observe that those
classified as dark-skinned show the highest standard deviation (8.6),
indicating greater variability in heights, while the Black category has the
lowest standard deviation (2.1), suggesting greater homogeneity.
Examining the evolution of the variability by decade of birth shows a
sustained increase in the standard deviation, with the highest value in 1810
(15.8) and lowest in 1720 (0.5) (see the appendix). This could indicate
increasing diversity in living conditions or in the composition of the military
population.
The data shows four subperiods: 1720-1740 (in which the highest
average height is observed, remaining above 167 cm), 1740-1790 (where
there is a gradual but moderate decline), 1790-1800 (where the steepest
drop is observed, reaching 160.1 cm), and 1800-1810 (where height
stabilizes slightly, with a small variation between 160.1 and 161.1 cm (see
Figure 2).
Figure 1. Height distribution (cm) for all affiliations in New Granada, 1720-1810
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Figure 2. Average height and standard deviation (cm) of military conscripts born between
1720 and 1810
Source: Authors’ calculations using data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo
General de la Nación.
The characteristics of the sample described above are maintained
when analyzing the subgroup of recruits born in the Americas. Soldiers
classified as black or brown had an average height 6 cm greater than those
classified as white (see Table 4). Average height declines from 1740
onwards (see Figure 5). Figure 3 shows the places where these recruits were
born. A large number of soldiers were born in the Andean region of the
Viceroyalty of New Granada and in the most important towns of the
Caribbean and Pacific coasts.
168,15 167,81 169,21 167,50 166,78 165,66 165,74 164,83
160,09 161,05
1720 1740 1760 1780 1800
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Figure 3. Place of birth of the recruits of New Granada and Audiencia de Quito born
between 1720 and 1800 in the Americas
Source: Prepared by the authors using data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo
General de la Nación.
Figure 4. Height distribution (cm) for individuals born in the Americas in the period 1720-
1810
Source: Authors’ calculations using data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo
General de la Nación.
1000000030001 10 0 100000010 00 0 00 0 0
55
56
19
8
25
19
4
16
10
13413011110000000000001
[130, 131]
(132, 133]
(134, 135]
(136, 137]
(138, 139]
(140, 141]
(142, 143]
(144, 145]
(146, 147]
(148, 149]
(150, 151]
(152, 153]
(154, 155]
(156, 157]
(158, 159]
(160, 161]
(162, 163]
(164, 165]
(166, 167]
(168, 169]
(170, 171]
(172, 173]
(174, 175]
(176, 177]
(178, 179]
(180, 181]
(182, 183]
(184, 185]
(186, 187]
(188, 189]
(190, 191]
(192, 193]
(194, 195]
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Table 4. Height (cm) and number of records according to skin color for military conscripts
born in the Americas between 1720 and 1820
Skin color
Number
of
records
Average
Height
Minimum
height
Maximum
height
Standard
Deviation
Dark (Moreno)
6
172.6
162.4
194.9
11.8
Black (Zambo o
Mulato)
12
166.9
162.4
168.3
2.1
Light brown skin
(Trigueño)
79
166.7
142.1
181.8
5.5
White
77
165.1
138.0
179.5
6.9
Unspecified
18
163.6
129.9
175.5
11.2
Total Americans
192
165.9
129.9
194.9
7.0
Source: Authors’ calculations using data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo
General de la Nación.
Figure 5. Average height and standard deviation (cm) of American-born conscript military
personnel by decade of birth between 1720 and 1810
Source: Authors’ calculations using data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo
General de la Nación.
lMost of the affiliated military personnel who were not born in the New
World were of Spanish or Portuguese origin (see Figure 6). Within this
subsample, the skin color with the highest average height was white.
However, the category trigueño (which at the time referred to a skin tone
similar to the color of wheat or light brown) shows the lowest average (see
Table 5). The average height of those born in Spain and Portugal also
decreased after 1740 (see the appendix and Figure 8).
167,81 168,27 170,32 167,98 167,07 166,29 165,74 164,83
160,60 161,05
1720 1740 1760 1780 1800
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Figure 6. Place of birth of origin of the Spanish and Portuguese recruits in New Granada
born between 1720 and 1800
Source: Elaborated by the authors using data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo
General de la Nación.
Figure 7. Height distribution in cm for individuals born in Spain and Portugal between 1720
and 1810.
Source: Elaborated by the authors with data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo
General de la Nación.
22
12
24
18
15
9
29
8
12
687
0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
[162, 163]
(163, 164]
(164, 165]
(165, 166]
(166, 167]
(167, 168]
(168, 169]
(169, 170]
(170, 171]
(171, 172]
(172, 173]
(173, 174]
(174, 175]
(175, 176]
(176, 177]
(177, 178]
(178, 179]
(179, 180]
(180, 181]
(181, 182]
(182, 183]
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Table 5. Height (cm) and number of records according to skin color of military conscripts
born in Spain and Portugal between 1720 and 1800, raw averages
Skin color
Number of
records
Average
Height
Minimum
height
Maximum
height
Standard
Deviation
White
36
167.1
162.4
176.4
3.6
Dark
6
167.1
165.1
171.6
2.7
Unspecified
91
166.9
162.4
182.7
3.8
Light brown skin
(Trigueño)
41
166.7
161.7
177.1
3.6
Total
174
166.9
161.7
182.7
3.7
Source: Elaborated by the authors with data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo
General de la Nación.
Figure 8. Average height and standard deviation (cm) of Spanish and Portuguese military
conscripts born between 1720 and 1800
Source: Elaborated by the authors with data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo
General de la Nación.
The downward trend in the average height of military conscripts in
New Granada from the 1740s onwards is consistent with a similar pattern in
other parts of the world in this same time period. In Mexico, for example,
Grajales-Porras and López-Alonso (2011) found a reduction of about 2
centimeters in the population of Puebla during the last decades of the 18th.
When comparing our estimates with the average heights reported by
authors such as Llorca-Jaña et al. (2018) and Dobado-González & García-
Montero (2014) in the Americas and parts of Europe, we observe that the
United States was the only territory with available data for which the
average height increased (see Figure 9). The causes behind this global trend
are multidimensional. The literature highlights the decline in real wages in
Spanish America, as well as in most European countries, which anticipated
the economic crisis of the colonial system (Dobado-Gonzáles, 2014).
168,49 167,36 168,18 167,21 166,61 165,15
162,40
1720 1730 1740 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800
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3The Little Ice Age produced severe disruptions in agriculture due to the occurrence of periods of extreme weather conditions, such as droughts, frosts, and
storms. In Mexico City, for example, the agricultural crises of 1771–1772 and 1785–1786 caused severe socioeconomic impacts, such as food shortages and
increased mortality rates (García Torres, 2021).
4Height is inversely related to various diseases, especially if the infection occurs during childhood (Marques et al., 2019).
Figure 9. Evolution of height in different countries, 1720-1810, raw averages
Source: For Colombia, author´s calculations using data collected from the Sección Colonia,
Archivo General de la Nación; for Sweden, Spain, Argentina and Mexico, Llorca-Jaña et al.
(2018), and for the United States and Lombardy, Dobado-Gonzáles (2014).
The decline in real wages is one of the strongest hypotheses in the
literature to explain the reduction observed in heights (Dobado-González,
2015). However, other probable determinants of the global decline in
height identified in the literature in this period include increasing income
inequality, rising food prices, reduced daily nutrient intake (deterioration of
nutritional status) (García-Montero, 2018), climate variability associated
with the Little Ice Age and resulting agricultural crises3 (García Torres ,
2021), urban penalty Llorca-Jaña et al. (2020) and epidemics4 (Carson,
2020).
Anthropometric studies such as that of Galofré-Vilà et al. (2018) delve
into the impact and the mechanisms through which climatic changes have
159,00
161,00
163,00
165,00
167,00
169,00
171,00
173,00
1720 1730 1740 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800 1810
Estados Unidos Argentina Reino Unido
Suecia Chile Colombia
Lombardia México España
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affected living standards and human stature over the past two centuries.
The authors argue that while climate had a measurable influence on human
stature during the 19th century—mainly through its effects on food
availability, disease environments, and energy expenditure—this
relationship weakened significantly over time. The attenuation of climatic
effects on height reflects what Fogel and Costa (1997) termed
“technophysio evolution,” a process through which technological and
economic modernization progressively insulated human biological
outcomes from environmental constraints. Today, such climatic impacts
are more evident in lower-income countries, where dependence on local
agriculture and limited infrastructure still link physical development closely
to weather conditions. In the next section we will discuss other possible
hypotheses.
Why Did Heights Fall?
The decline in the observed heights of military conscripts in Cartagena
born between 1720-1810 is multifactorial. In the case of those born in New
Granada, which represented 51.5% of the sample, several factors played a
central role. In the first place, the 18th century was a period of recurring and
often severe epidemics in the viceroyalty. As Katherine Mora (2021) and
Christian Bejarano (2023) have documented, epidemics occurred in New
Granada in 1744, 1775-1776, 1782-1784, 1801-1803, and 1815-1817. In all of
this cases smallpox was present; in 1775-1776 chicken pox was also
reported, along with dysentery in Cartagena and Santa Marta.
Although the percent of children who died of smallpox was higher
than that of adults, adult mortality was also high. For example, in the
epidemic of 1782-1783, adult mortality increased 3.7 times and children
mortality 4.9 times (Bejarano, 2023). In that same epidemic, the annual
smallpox mortality rate per 1,000 inhabitants was 39.3 (Bejarano, 2021).
Smallpox could have affected the final height of individuals under 18
through two channels. The most commonly discussed is the link between
net nutrition and height, as the body expends additional energy to combat
the disease. In addition, if many parents die—especially in lower income
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5 Although Peter Razzell (1998) questioned the results obtained by Voth and Leunig, his criticism refers more to the quality of the data they used, as Leunig and
Voth (1998) have responded. However, the authors have defended the quality of the information they used. For another study that found a reduction of more
than 1 cm due to smallpox in the Belgian town of Thielt from 1820 and 1839, see Vervaeke and Devos (2017).
6 However, Komlos (2012) offers a different explanation for the decline in heights in the United States during the years preceding the Civil Wars. His argument is
that the relative prices of nutrients were increasing, leading to a substitution away from food toward manufactured goods. Additionally, income inequality was
rising, which also contributed to the reduction in height.
groups—the economic conditions of the family would deteriorate, leading
to poorer diets.
Several economic historians have examined the effects of smallpox on
height. In 1996, Hans-Joachim Voth and Timothy Leunig published a paper
in which they argued that smallpox led to a reduction of the average height
of men of about one centimeter during the period 1770-1873 (Voth &
Leunig, 1996).5
The negative consequences of epidemics on final height have been a
key element in anthropometric explanations of what is known in the
literature as the “Antebellum Puzzle.” This anomaly was initially discussed
in the early 1980s and refers to the observed reduction in the height of adult
white males in the United States in the decades before the Civil War (Haines
et al., 2003). The paradox lies in the fact that the United States economy
was growing very rapidly at the time: real per capita GDP increased at
annual rate of 0.92% between 1800 and 1860 (Brinkman & Drukker, 1998).
Robert W. Fogel (1986) explained this paradox by noting that the period
preceding the Civil War was marked by a high incidence of epidemics,
including typhus, smallpox, tuberculosis, yellow fever, malaria, and cholera,
which negatively affected net nutrition. The spread of disease during this
period was driven by increases in internal migration and travels associated
with advances in transportation network, particularly the expansion of
railroads. In addition, immigration and urbanization contributed to the
diffusion of contagious diseases.6
A second factor that probably contributed to the reduction in height
in New Granada in the period under discussion was the presence of extreme
climatic conditions during the 18th century and early 19th century.
Katherine Mora says that from 1743 to 1809, there were 24 years with some
type of extreme climatic condition such as droughts, frosts, and floods, that
is 36% of the time (Mora, 2015). According to Prieto and Rojas, extreme
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7 According to Alberto Pardo from 1720 to 1826 nominal salaries were 2 reales per day (Pardo, 1972, pp. 231-233).
weather conditions often exacerbate epidemics (Prieto & Rojas, 2013):
floods in the case of dysentery and typhus, yellow fever, and droughts for
smallpox, malaria, and measles.
A third factor that may have contributed to the reduction in height
among New Granadians from 1740 to 1840 was the continuous growth of
the population of the viceroyalty. Between 1778 and 1825, the average
annual population growth was 1.4%. It was even higher in some of the
larger towns, such as Cartagena, which grew at an annual rate of 1.8%
between 1777-1810 (Aguilera & Meisel, 2009). The growth in population led
to increased density, which may have facilitated the spread of contagious
diseases.
A possible fourth cause for the decline in height in New Granada
during this period could be a reduction in real wages as a result of inflation,
given that nominal wages were very stable at the time.7 The fragmentary
information available on prices for the period 1720-1840 does not show
evidence of a generalized increase or deflation over the period as a whole,
although there appear to be some short-term fluctuations, likely related to
climatic conditions. Alberto Pardo, using price data for Santafé de Bogota,
found long-run price stability from 1720 to 1840, with an extreme
fluctuation in 1797-1798, that could be explained by transcription issues
(Pardo, 1972). James V. Torres (2014) constructed a price index for Popayan
from 1706 to 1819 and did not find a long-run price trend during those years.
The same author (Torres Moreno, 2013), for Santafé de Antioquia, shows
long-term stability from 1726 to 1767. However, for Santafé de Bogotá,
there is relative stability from 1791 to around 1797, followed by a sustained
increase in prices. A graphical inspection of the eight individual prices of the
products he used suggest that all were relatively stable, with fluctuations
from 1791 to 1802, except salt, which appears to show a sustained price
increase from 1791 to 1808. The increase in the price of salt was marginal—
5% in 17 years—and expenditure on salt is always share of household
budgets; thus, its impact was likely limited. Finally, Miguel Urrutia Montoya
reports stability in prices and salaries in Santafé de Bogotá from 1825 to
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1860 (Urrutia Montoya, 2010). In conclusion, there is little evidence of
inflation from 1720 to 1840.
For military conscripts born in Spain and Portugal, who represented
47% of all recruits, the explanation for changes in height during this period
is, in most cases, related to conditions what happened in their region of
origin. Unfortunately, there is very little information on the height of
Spanish and Portuguese males before 1850. However, the available
evidence suggests that height in Spain was declining toward the end of the
18th century and until 1850. In the case of Toledo, for example, height
declined from 164-163 cm in 1777 to 162 in 1850 (Martínez-Carrión & Puche-
Gil, 2011). For those born in Spain who arrived very young (under 18 years
of age) in New Granada, the same negative influences on height
experienced by those born in the New World apply.
In other regions of Spanish America, a decline in the heights of military
conscripts during the 18th century has been documented. For Chile, Llorca-
Jaña et al. (2018) using a sample of 2,399 recruits observed a reduction of
average height from 168.2 in 1760 to 167.1 cm. in 1800. They attribute this
decline to a reduction in real wages as a result of rising prices and to a
population increase without technological change.
A reduction in the height of military conscripts has also been
documented in the Viceroyalty of New Spain (Challú, 2010). In that case,
from 1740s to the 1840s there was a reduction of 4.5 cm., from 165 to 160.5
cm. Challú considers that the main influences in this outcome were
significant population growth, around 1.0% annually except from 1810 to
1830. Other factors included the climatic effects of El Niño and increases in
grain prices, especially corn. However, he argues that these factors alone
do not fully explain the reduction and that further analysis is needed.
To conduct an inferential analysis of the correlation between height
and its determinants, this section apples a truncated regression model to
the dataset, following the recommendations of Komlos (2003). As
previously mentioned, the height distribution of our sample exhibits data
rounding and heaping. For this reason, we conclude that the sample is
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8 For example, in Spain, landowners and highly skilled service workers were almost 5 cm taller than servants (García-Montero, 2018).
normally distributed only within the range !"!%&'(#)*+,-# ""%
./01/0/23$, where "!is the lower limit and ""is the upper limit.
In this case, the truncated regression (TR) method is appropriate.
Truncated regression is a statistical method used when the dependent
variable is observed only within a certain range. Observations outside this
range are not included in the analysis, resulting in coefficient estimates with
less bias and greater statistical consistency (Komlos, 2003).
Table 6 shows the results of applying this methodology to our data,
truncating the sample from the left at 162.4 cm and estimating the model
using the maximum likelihood method. As mentioned in the previous
section, the records we use contain the name of the recruit and his parents,
the place of origin and assigned position, previous occupation, and physical
characteristics such as height, sex, hair color and type, and skin color.
However, for some of these variables, the information in most of the
transcribed records was either illegible or missing. For this reason, the
model includes only three independent variables, which serve as proxies for
the nutritional status of the recruits and their income. As García-Montero
(2018) notes, there were notable differences in heights by occupation and
social status.8
Table 6. Results of a truncated regression model at 162.4 cm for the height of military
conscripts in New Granada, estimated using the maximum likelihood method
Variable
Estimator
Standard
error
Statistical
P-value
Significance
Intercept
166
7
24,595
< 2.2e-16
***
Day laborer/artisan
-12
5,43911
-2,212
0.02697
*
Light skin color (brown
and white)
-0.76
3,55672
-0.2132
0.83116
Born between 1745 and
1805
-4.59
5
-8.84E-01
0.37679
sigma
9,2808
2,0934
4,4334
9.28E-06
***
Log-Likelihood: -637.81 on 5 Df
pseudo R 2 : 0.38 n=373
Source: Authors’ calculations based on data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo
General de la Nación.
Note: The dichotomous variable day laborer/artisan takes the value of one if the
conscript’s occupation was day laborer, goat herder, embroiderer, artisan, merchant or
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cook, and zero if the occupation was fisherman, pen worker, other, trader, without
occupation, sea worker, farmer, or student. All observations in the dataset are included
(individuals born in New Granada and abroad).
The results show an statistically significant intercept of 166 cm. This
value represents the average height of military officers who do not belong
to any of the categories of the explanatory variables (i.e., those who are not
a day laborers or artisans, have dark skin, and were not born between 1745
and 1805).
The variable day laborer/artisan has a negative coefficient of –12,
suggesting that military personnel in this category had an average height
12 cm lower than the reference group. This effect is statistically significant
at the 5% level, with a p-value is 0.02697 (*).
The coefficient for light skin color takes a value of –0.76, indicating
that light-skinned military personnel were, on average, 0.76 cm shorter
than those with dark skin (the reference group). However, this variable is
not statistically significant (p-value = 0.83116), implying that the difference
in height by skin color is not conclusive in this model.
On the other hand, conscripts born between 1745 and 1805 were, on
average, 4.59 cm shorter than those born outside this period. However, this
effect is also not statistically significant (p-value = 0.37679), suggesting that
variation in height by date of birth is not strong in this model.
By analyzing the standard deviation of the model errors, we infer that
the dispersion of height around the mean is 9.3 cm (Sigma), which is highly
significant and supports the adequacy of the model. Another measure of
model fit is McFadden’s Pseudo R², which captures the model’s ability to
explain variation in the dependent variable. In this case, a Pseudo R² of 0.38
suggests a moderate level of fit, which is common in truncated regression
models, as these models may lose explanatory power due to the absence of
data in certain ranges.
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Conclusions
This study significantly broadens the time frame examined in the
anthropometric history of Colombia, which has been well documented for
the period after 1870—particularly after 1905—but had not previously
covered the colonial era and the early 19th century. The data presented here
contribute substantially to the historical and economic literature by providing
a new database on the height of military conscripts in New Granada born
between 1720 and 1810 (373 observation). Height, used as an indicator of
biological well-being, allows us to infer living conditions, nutrition, and health
status of the population during this period. The results reveal a downward
trend in the average height of conscripts, reflecting a deterioration in living
standards.
The decline in average height—from 168.2 cm in 1720 to 161 cm in
1810—was likely the result of recurrent epidemics between 1740 and 1818,
adverse climatic conditions such as floods, droughts, and frosts, and a
continuous population growth of about 1% between 1778 and 1825. This
reduction in stature was also observed during the same period in other
regions of Spanish America, such as New Spain and Chile, and possibly in
Spain, where 47% of the recruits were born.
Using a truncated regression model estimated by maximum likelihood,
we found that occupations such as day laborers and artisans had a negative
and statistically significant impact on height, suggesting that these
workers—belonging to lower socioeconomic strata—experienced harsher
living conditions that affected their physical development. The variables of
skin color and date of birth, while descriptively relevant, are not statistically
significant in the model, possibly due to the relative homogeneity of living
conditions across groups.
The international literature indicates that the downward trend in
stature during this period was not unique to New Granada but was also
observed in other regions of the Americas and Europe, with the exception of
the United States during the 19th century, though not in the early 19th
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century. Given the sample size, these conclusions should be regarded as
tentative yet suggestive, providing preliminary evidence of biological and
social deterioration in late colonial society.
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Appendix
Tables
Table 1. Height (cm) and number of observations by decade of birth for military conscripts born between 1720 and 1820
Decade of
birth
Number of
observations
Percentage of
observations
Average
height
Minimu
m height
Maximu
m height
Standard
deviation
1720
2
1%
168.2
167.8
168.5
0.5
1730
2
1%
167.8
167.4
168.3
0.6
1740
47
13%
169.2
162.4
194.9
5.1
1750
116
31%
167.5
154.1
182.7
4.3
1760
118
32%
166.8
161.7
179.5
3.8
1770
18
5%
165.7
162.4
176.6
3.8
1780
5
1%
165.7
162.4
171
4.6
1790
18
5%
164.8
162.4
170.5
3.1
1800
41
11%
160.1
136
173.7
9.7
1810
6
2%
161.0
129.9
170.5
15.8
Total
373
100%
166.3
129.9
194.9
5.9
Source: Authors’ calculations using data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo General de la Nación.
Table 2. Height (cm) and number of observations by decade of birth for military conscripts born in America between 1720 and 1810
Decade of birth
Number of
records
Average
height
Minimum
Maximum
Standard
deviation
1720
1
167.8
167.8
167.8
NA
1730
1
168.3
168.3
168.3
NA
1740
18
170.3
164.4
194.9
6.7
1750
61
168.0
162.4
181.8
4.3
1760
36
167.1
162.4
179.5
4.5
1770
8
166.3
162.4
176.6
5.0
1780
5
165.7
162.4
171.0
4.6
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1790
18
164.8
162.4
170.5
3.1
1800
38
160.6
138.0
173.7
9.3
1810
6
161.0
129.9
170.5
15.8
Total America
(1720 - 1810)
192
165.9
129.9
194.9
7.0
Source: Authors’ calculations using data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo General de la Nación.
Table 3. Height (cm) and number of observations by decade of birth for military conscripts born in Spain and Portugal between 1720 and 1800
Decade of birth
Number of
records
Average
height
Minimum
Maximum
Standard
deviation
1720
1
168.5
168.5
168.5
0.0
1730
1
167.4
167.4
167.4
0.0
1740
26
168.2
162.4
176.4
3.7
1750
53
167.2
162.4
182.7
3.9
1760
81
166.6
161.7
178.6
3.5
1770
10
165.2
162.4
169.6
2.8
1800
2
162.4
162.4
162.4
0.0
Total
174
166.9
161.7
182.7
3.7
Source: Elaborated by the authors using data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo General de la Nación.
Table 4. Observations on heights by region of origin
Country of origin
Region of origin
Number of records
New Granada
172
Bogotá
55
Panamá
38
Cartagena
14
Tunja
10
Zipaquirá
7
Boyacá
5
Somondoco
4
Popayán
4
Santa Marta
3
Pasto
3
Antioquia
2
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Chepo
2
Chiquinquirá
2
Funjaz
1
Leyba
1
Guadalupe
1
Melgar
1
Sabanagrande
1
Villa de los Santos
1
Sebastián de Piragua
1
Almeyda
1
Tunjas
1
Caracas
1
Riohacha
1
Barranquilla
1
San Felipe
1
Piedecuesta
1
Soacha
1
Choconta
1
Cartago
1
Provincia del Darién
1
Villa de Hibros
1
Cundinamarca
1
Lorica
1
Falabeza
1
Neiva
1
Spain
176
España
65
Cuenca
6
Leon
6
Valencia
5
Segovia
4
Malaga
4
Jaen
4
Toledo
3
Sevilla
3
Salamanca
3
Zamora
3
Pamplona
2
Alcala
2
Santiago
2
Exija
2
Denia
2
Granada
2
Cadiz
2
Guete
2
Ceija
2
Villa de Montiel
2
Asturias
2
Merida
2
Mondoñedo
2
Madrid
2
Lugo
2
Canarias
1
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Ubeda
1
San Miguel de Ruvindo
1
Zerdeña
1
Feligresia de Orense
1
Silecia
1
Fiña
1
Valladolid
1
Furon
1
Salma de Chita
1
Carmona
1
Ariensa
1
Balverde
1
Culatas
1
Agreda
1
Urdiales del Paramo
1
La Mancha
1
Almagro
1
Corella
1
Lucena
1
San Clemente
1
Baldemoro
1
Cosena
1
Ciudad de Guadizo
1
Barcelona
1
Almenara
1
Tarragona
1
Clemente
1
Torre Nueva
1
Cofrentes
1
Úbeda
1
Murcia
1
Burgo
1
Oviedo
1
Villa de Consuegra
1
Cordoba
1
Alcira
1
Pereda
1
Balladolid
1
Rueda del Almirante
1
Quito audience
17
Villa de Ibarra
6
Quito
4
Asiento de Latacunga
3
Riobamba
2
Otabalo
2
Unknown
3
Hatabato
2
No information
1
Portugal
2
Portugal
1
Lisboa
1
Italy
1
Italia
1
Mexico
1
México
1
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France
1
Lemon de Francia
1
Grand total
373
Source: Elaborated by the authors using data collected from the Sección Colonia, Archivo General de la Nación (2024).
Images
Image 1. Military affiliation for the Viceroyalty of New Granada, 1793
Source: Sección Colonia, Tesoros Documentales, Archivo General de la Nación (2024).
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Image 2. Military affiliation for the Republic of New Granada, 1833
Source: Sección Colonia, Tesoros Documentales, Archivo General de la Nación (2024).